There are a variety of cultural value models that have been devel­oped by scholars in different fields. I have selected three for discus­sion here to give a sense of the models available for managers. These particular models were identified because they have been presented widely in the international management literature. Each model is described and its limitations noted, then the model is related to some aspect of management. This discussion is very simplistic and in no way comprehensive. It is intended only to illustrate the potential for practical applications of cultural models in the international busi­ness setting.

The anthropologists Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) explained cul­tural similarities and differences in terms of basic problems that all hu­man societies face. Cultural differences are illuminated by varying ways of coping with these problems-different societies adopt different solu­tions. This model has been used by a number of international management authors and provides a means of assessing national culture that many people find helpful. Consider the various solutions that societies have developed for the five problem areas identified by these two anthropologists.

Societies that view themselves as subjugated to nature view life as es­sentially preordained; people are not masters of their own destinies and trying to change the inevitable is futile. Societies that view themselves as living in harmony with nature believe that people must alter their behavior to accommodate nature. Societies that view themselves as able to master nature think in terms of the supremacy of the human race and harnessing the forces of nature.

Societies that are oriented toward the past look for solutions in the past: What would our forefathers have done? Societies that are present-oriented consider the immediate effects of their actions: What will happen if I do this? Societies that are future-oriented look to the long-term results of today's events: What will happen to future generations if we do these things today?

These are Societies that believe that people are primarily evil focus on controlling the behavior of people through specified code of conduct and sanctions for wrong doing. Societies that believe that people arc essentially good exhibit trust and rely on verbal agreements. Societies that see people as changeable and capable of both good and evil focus on means to modify behavior, en­courage desired behavior, and discourage behaviors that are not desirable.

Societies that are primarily “being”-oriented are emotional; people re­act spontaneously based on what they feel at the time. Those that are “doing”-oriented are constantly striving to achieve; people are driven by a need to accomplish difficult tasks. Those that are concerned with containing and controlling focus on moderation and orderliness; people seek to achieve a balance in life and in society.

Societies that are primarily individualistic believe that individuals should be independent and take responsibility for their own actions. Those that are lineal are concerned with the family line and the power structure that underlies a hierarchy. Those that are co-lineal are group-oriented and emphasize group interactions and actions

Societies that see space as private will partition space for individual or small group use. Societies that see space as public have few divisions and use space for interchangeable purposes. Anglo societies are rela­tively private in terms of their view of space, and organizations in the United States or the United Kingdom will generally have offices for one or a few persons; within shared offices each person will have a clearly defined space. In Japan, where space is viewed as public, offices are open, with employees sharing desks as well as such resources as tele­phones, pens, pads, and so on. Interestingly, people who see space as private find ways of identifying their space through the use of photo­graphs, personal mementos, and so on, while people who see space as public do not typically do this. In addition to these different views of space, people have a sense of personal space, and the degree of personal space that is comfortable varies from place to place. Latin Americans, for example, like to be very close when conversing; North Americans tend to stand about an arm's length apart, and the Japanese prefer to maintain a greater distance.

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